The offshore energy (oil/gas and renewables) and mineral extraction industries introduce man-made noise into the marine environment through exploration (seismic), development and production (pile driving and drilling), decommissioning (using explosives) and activities associated with these actions (i.e., icebreaking, support vessel traffic and aircraft overflights). At the same time, marine life rely on sound to communicate, find mates, navigate, detect predators, and to gain information about their environment critical to survival and reproductive success. The ultimate question is at what point does man-made noise interfere with the animals’ functions (behavioral and physiological) such that it becomes disruptive to important biological processes (i.e., breeding, feeding, reproductive success) and possibly biologically significant? MMS is one among many agencies, academia and private sector groups attempting to address this important and scientifically challenging question.

Over the last 30 years, the MMS Environmental Studies Program has contributed significantly to a better understanding of the effects of man-made noise on marine life.

Seismic and Acoustic Impacts

A seismic survey is a component of many information gathering efforts conducted in many parts of the offshore and coastal waters. Seismic surveys use very short high-energy impulses of sound directed downwards into the seafloor, with some energy being reflected back. There is concern that these pulses, which lie towards the lower end of the range of human hearing, may adversely affect nearby marine mammals, particularly endangered species. The MMS has funded several studies on the effects of seismic noise on bowhead, gray, and humpback whales (especially in Alaska, see list below) and a book, Marine Mammals and Noise, that is a comprehensive evaluation of the issue.

The Sperm Whale Seismic Survey study (SWSS) investigated sperm whales in the Gulf of Mexico and their potential response to energy seismic exploration. This project used innovative technology including satellite tags and depth recording tags to better understand the movements and responses of Sperm whales. The project also developed baseline information on distribution, physiology, and behavior of sperm whales in the GOM, and included collaboration with the Office of Naval Research, the National Science Foundation, and a coalition of seismic and oil industry companies.

The MMS requires observers to be present on seismic boats during surveys and to send reports to MMS concerning observations and mitigative measures (temporarily stopping activities) to reduce the interactions between seismic boats and marine mammals. An evaluation of these reports and the effectiveness of the mitigation are currently underway.

Bowhead Whale Migrations

The MMS has been conducting aerial surveys in the Alaskan Arctic to ensure that offshore industry activities are not significantly affecting bowhead whale distribution, behavior and migratory pathways. Continuous surveys have been conducted since 1979 providing a unique long-term data set to which current year information can be compared. The bowhead whale is protected under the Endangered Species Act and is of great importance to Alaskan Natives for cultural and subsistence purposes. This study addresses their concern that seismic and drilling noise could block the fall migration and/or force the overall migration farther offshore, from one year to the next, making it harder to hunt the whales. Therefore it is important to understand what and how human activities could impact the whale migration in conjunction with the variations in the water depth and ice coverage.

Pile Driving

The effects of sound from pile driving on fish are a concern during the construction of offshore wind facilities, which may have several hundred monopiles to install. Through laboratory experiments, fish will be exposed to sound levels similar to those generated during pile driving. The damage to tissue will be evaluated. The effect of sound on fish is not as well studied as for marine mammals.

In addition to laboratory experiments, the MMS is planning to evaluate the ambient noise and construction noise at initial offshore wind facilities. The precise locations will depend on approvals for development.

National Reports

Several national reports addressing sound in the marine environment have been prepared:

	Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals: Current Knowledge and Research Needs (National Research Council, 1994)
	Marine Mammals and Low-Frequency Sound: Progress Since 1994 (National Research Council, 2000)
	Ocean Noise and Marine Mammals (National Research Council, 2003)
	Marine Mammal Populations and Ocean Noise: Determining When Noise Causes Biologically Significant Effects (National Research Council, 2005) – MMS contributed funding
	Addressing the effects of human-generated sound on marine life: An integrated research plan for U.S. Federal agencies. A Report of the Joint Subcommittee on Ocean Science & Technology (JSOST) – interagency task force on anthropogenic sound and the marine environment. January, 2009. – MMS contributed

Other MMS Studies of Interest

Alaska

	Cummings, W.C., D.V. Holliday, and B.J. Graham. 1981. Measurements and localization of underwater sounds from the Prudhoe region, Alaska, March 1981. Final report of the Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program, Research Unit 232.
	Stewart, B.S., F.T. Awbrey, and W.E. Evans. 1983. Belukha whale (Delphinapterus leucas) responses to industrial noise in Nushagak Bay, Alaska: 1983. Final report of the Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program, Research Unit 629.
	Malme, C.I., P.R. Miles, C.W. Clarke, P. Tyak, and J.E. Bird. 1983. Investigation of the potential effects of underwater noise from petroleum industry activities on migrating Gray whale behavior. Report 5366.
	Malme, C.I., P.R. Miles, C.W. Clark, P. Tyak, and J.E. Bird. 1984. Investigations of the potential effects of underwater noise from petroleum industry activities on migrating gray whale behavior phase II: January 1984 migration. Report 5586.
	Cummings, W.C., D.V. Holliday, and B.J. Lee. 1984. Potential impacts of man-made noise on ringed seals: vocalization and reactions. Final report of the Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program, Research Unit 636.
	Ljungblad, D.K., B. Wursig, R.R. Reeves, J.T. Clarke, and C.R. Greene. 1984. Fall 1983 Beaufort Sea seismic monitoring and Bowhead whale behavior studies.
	Malme, C.I., P.R. Miles, C.W. Clark, P. Tyak, and J.E. Bird. 1985. Investigation of the potential effects of underwater noise from petroleum industry activities on feeding Humpback whale behavior. OCS Study MMS 85-0019.
	Fraker, M.A., D.K. Lungblad, W.J. Richardson, and D.R. Van Schoik. 1985. Bowhead whale behavior in relation to seismic exploration, Alaskan Beaufort Sea, autumn 1981. OCS Study MMS 85-0077
	Malme, C.I., B. Wursig, J.E. Bird, and P. Tyak. 1986. Behavioral responses of gray whales to industrial noise: feeding obsrvations and predictive models. Final report of the Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program, Research Unit 675.
	Miles, P.R., C.I. Malme, G.W. Shepard, W. R. Richardson, and J.E. Bird. 1986. Prediction of drilling site-specific interaction of industrial acoustic stimuli and endangered whales, Beaufort Sea (1985). OCS Study MMS 86-0046.
	Kelly, B.P. L.T. Quakenbush, and J.R. Rose. 1986. Ringed seal winter ecology and effects of noise disturbance. Final report of the Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program, Research Unit 232.
	Miles, P.R., C.I. Malme, and W. R. Richardson. 1987. Prediction of drilling site-specific interaction of industrial acoustic stimuli and endangered whales in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. OCS Study of MMS 87-0084.
	Johnson, S.R., J.J. Burns, C.I. Malme, and R.A. Davis. 1988. Synthesis of information on the effects of noise and disturbance on major haulout concentrations of Bering Sea pinnipeds. OCS Study MMS 88-0092.
	Malme, C.I., P.R. Miles, G.W. Miller, W.J. Richardson, D.G. Roseneau, D.H. Thomson, and C.I. Greene, Jr. 1989. Analysis and ranking of the acoustic disturbance potential of petroleum industry activities and other sources of noise in the environment of marine mammals of Alaska. OCS Study MMS 89-0006
	Richardson, W.J., C.R. Greene, Jr., W.R. Koski, C.I. Malme, G.W. Miller, M.A. Smultea and B. Wursig. 1990. Acoustic effects of oil production activities on Bowhead and White whales visible during spring migration near Pt. Barrow, Alaska—1989 phase: sound propagation and whale responses to playbacks of continuous drilling noise from an ice platform, as studied in pack ice conditions. OCS Study MMS 90-0017
	Richardson, W.J., C.R. Greene, Jr., W.R. Koski, and M.A. Smultea. 1991. Acoustic effects of oil production activities on Bowhead and White whales visible during spring migration near Pt. Barrow, Alaska—1990 phase: sound propagation and whale responses to playbacks of continuous drilling noise from an ice platform, as studied in pack ice conditions. OCS Study MMS 91-0037
	Richardson, W.J., C.R. Greene, Jr., W.R. Koski, G.W. Miller, and M.A. Smultea. 1992. Acoustic effects of oil production activities on Bowhead and White whales visible during spring migration near Pt. Barrow, Alaska—1990 phase: Preliminary data on sound propagation and whale responses to playbacks of icebreaker noise.
	Arctic Seismic Synthesis and Mitigating Measures Workshop Proceedings March 5-6, 1997, Barrow, Alaska.
	Shepard, G.W., P.A. Krumhansl, M.L. Knack, and C.I. Malme. 2001. ANIMIDA phase I: ambient and industrial noise measurements near the Northstar and Liberty sites during April 2000. OCS Study MMS 2001-0047.

California

Pearson, W., J. Skalski, D. Sulkin, and C. Maim. 1988. The effects of seismic energy releases on the zoeal larvae of the Dungeness crab (Cancer magister)

General

	Turl, C.W. 1982. Possible effects of noise from offshore oil and gas drilling activities on marine mammals: a survey of the literature.
	Gales, R.S. 1982. Effects of noise of offshore oil and gas operations on marine mammals – an introductory assessment, Volume 1. BLM Technical Report 844.
	Gales, R.S. 1982. Effects of noise of offshore oil and gas operations on marine mammals – an introductory assessment, Volume 2. BLM Technical Report 844.
	Malme, C.I., P.W. Smith, and P.R. Miles. 1986. Characterization of geophysical acoustic survey sounds. OCS Study MMS 86-0032.
	Richardson, W.J. 1991. Effects of noise on marine mammals: Executive summary. OCS Study MMS 90-0093A.
	Richardson, W.J., C.R. Greene, C.I. Malme, and D.H. Thompson. 1991. Effects of noise on marine mammals. OCS Study MMS 90-0093.
	Richardson, W.J., C.R. Greene, C.I. Malme, and D.H. Thompson. 1995. Marine mammals and noise. Academic Press.

Gulf of Mexico

	Jochens, A.E. and D.C. Biggs, editors. 2003. Sperm whale seismic study in the Gulf of Mexico; Annual Report: Year 1. OCS Study MMS 2003-069.
	Jochens, A.E. and D.C. Biggs, editors. 2004. Sperm whale seismic study in the Gulf of Mexico; Annual Report: Year 2. OCS Study MMS 2004-067.
	Jochens, A., D. Biggs, D. Engelhaupt, J. Gordon, N. Jaquet, M. Johnson, R. Leben, B. Mate, P. Miller, J. Ortega-Ortiz, A. Thode, P. Tyack, J. Wormuth, and B. Würsig. 2006. Sperm whale seismic study in the Gulf of Mexico; Summary Report, 2002-2004. OCS Study MMS 2006-034.
	Jochens, A.E. and D.C. Biggs, eds. 2006. Sperm whale seismic study in the Gulf of Mexico; Annual Report: Years 3 and 4. OCS Study MMS 2006-067.
	Jochens, A., D. Biggs, K. Benoit-Bird, D. Engelhaupt, J. Gordon, C. Hu, N. Jaquet, M. Johnson, R. Leben, B. Mate, P. Miller, J. Ortega-Ortiz, A. Thode, P. Tyack, and B. Würsig. 2008. Sperm whale seismic study in the Gulf of Mexico: Synthesis report. OCS Study MMS 2008-006.